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However, many of the algorithms that guide our web searches and driving directions today are much older, rooted in what people now call Good, Old Fashioned AI, also known as symbolic AI, which was the primary form of AI from the 1950s through the 1990s. For example, the Deep Blue team made sure to program specific chess openings and variations based on Kasparov’s record. Today, AI based on deep learning and neural networks is taking the world by storm. It seems likely that Kasparov was mistaken in his suspicions, but Deep Blue had been “tuned” by a team of human chess experts specifically to play against Kasparov. Kasparov’s comments during the 1997 match to the effect that Deep Blue was making “human” moves, and his suspicion that humans had intervened during the games suggests that human expertise played a central role in Deep Blue’s programming.
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At the same time, chess programs have evolved into sophisticated expert systems that contain extensive representations of human knowledge, such as a database of chess openings, opening traps, and specialized rule sets for chess end games. Today, chess programs use a combination of brute-force and non-heuristic algorithms that narrow the search space, such as null-move searches or alpha-beta pruning. Many of the most memorable games in the history of chess involve so-called ‘brilliancies’ that typically begin with utterly counterintuitive moves, thus chess-evaluation algorithms cannot be derived directly from the so-called ‘principles’ of chess in the same way that propositions in geometry can be proved based on axioms. If an exchange of pieces allowed a pawn to begin advancing down the board and eventually become a queen or if the position could later become open, the exchange would be a mistake but the consequences might be 10 or more moves ahead. Kasparov went on to win the six-game match 4-2 and at the end of the match announced that he believed that chess computing had come of age. For example, a knight is generally worth more than a bishop in a closed position, so it would seem to follow that the exchange of bishop for knight would be beneficial in closed positions but there are many situations where an exchange of pieces would be a mistake. In February 1996, a chess-playing computer known as Deep Blue made history by defeating the reigning world chess champion, Gary Kasparov, in a game played under match conditions. Although humans refer to principles of chess, there are many exceptions that humans have no difficulty identifying.